Framing Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) in India’s Transport Landscape

Mobility is a foundational driver for a growing economy like India, serving as both a catalyst for development and a mechanism for social inclusion. Since 1980, India’s transport demand has grown eightfold, outpacing other Asian economies (Pradhan & Bagchi, 2013). India’s mobility challenges are multifaceted, encompassing urban congestion, road safety concerns, environmental issues, and inadequate rural connectivity. Rural areas, in particular, suffer from insufficient road infrastructure and a lack of formal transport services (Ministry of Rural Development, 2022). These challenges affect both passenger and freight mobility and have wide-ranging environmental, economic and social implications.

Pradhan & Bagchi (2013), found that there is a bidirectional causality between road infrastructure and economic growth. Investing in roads stimulates economic growth and capital formation, which then promote further infrastructure development. Thus, it makes road infrastructure a powerful and easily manageable policy tool. The government of India has responded to urbanization by expanding road infrastructure; however, the growth in vehicle numbers continues to outpace these improvements, resulting in traffic congestion and air pollution (Pwc & CII, 2023).

In other high-density countries, such as China and Japan, mobility infrastructure has also played a pivotal role. Their cities depend on transport networks to balance population movement for economic opportunity. These densely populated nations, like India, also struggle with congestion, environmental degradation, and social inclusion. The success of these nations in managing mobility helped to determine their competitiveness on the global stage (Purnamasari & Runturambi, 2024). Throughout history, societies with greater mobility have achieved broader influence and resilience, while constraints on movement often led to stagnation.

Emergence of Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) as a Global Solution

The inception of advanced air mobility emerged from the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) into aerial transport systems. It began as remotely controlled aircraft for military and surveillance missions, but quickly expanded into civilian domains like photography, mapping, logistics, emergency response and agriculture. Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) is an emerging aviation concept that aims to revolutionize transportation within and around metropolitan areas. It involves a safe electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft. They are efficient and accessible on-demand air transit system for passengers and cargo (NASA, n.d.). These aircrafts are designed to operate at lower altitudes, offering a potential solution to alleviate surface traffic congestion by utilizing underutilized airspace.

The current stage of eVTOL development is in its infancy, characterised by two primary approaches:

• a piloted path that will incrementally shift towards autonomous operation,
• pursuance of full autonomy through a pilotless approach.

The pilotless path is more challenging for early airworthiness and deployment but it represents the ultimate form of autonomous eVTOL technology (Xiang et al., 2024).

AAM has moved from vision documents to enforceable rules in several jurisdictions since 2020. According to MANFRED HADER et al. (2020) the passenger Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) market will reach almost 90 billion US dollars in annual revenue by 2050 with the APAC region contributing 35–40% of the total volume. Airport Shuttle and Inter City services are projected to generate 90% of the revenue (MANFRED HADER et al., 2020). Moreover, the potential of AAM lies in its ability to reduce travel times, increase transportation flexibility, provide environmental benefits, create economic opportunities and enhance emergency response capabilities (Çınar & Tuncal, 2023). It seeks to deliver efficient, sustainable and rapid transportation alternatives, complementing ground-based transportation modes and addressing the surging demand for mobility in urban areas (Straubinger et al., 2020).

Understanding the global progress of AAM integration

The AAM ecosystem is an interdependent system of systems whose safety case and public value emerge only when multiple subsystems mature together (FAA, 2023a). Safe commercial service will require simultaneous maturity in:

1. Certifying an aircraft that can fly (type design, production),
2. Authorizing people and organizations to operate them (pilot/ powered lift /VCA rules),
3. Providing airspace services to maintain safety and separation (UTM),
4. Building ground infrastructure such as Vertiports with energy systems, and
5. Integrating scheduling, ticketing and intermodal transport hubs (implementation plans, designated sites, authorized trials).

This five-layered stack is a minimal decomposition that mirrors how public authorities partition responsibilities. According to the concept of operations by FAA (2023b), each gate of a layer must open before the next one matters. Procurement should be sequenced layer by layer, not based on a single technology’s readiness. Furthermore, it provides a systemic, sequential, and comparative lens to evaluate AAM readiness across countries.

India

India has established its foundational ground with the UTM Policy Framework (2021) and a DGCA Advisory Circular (DGCA, 2024) establishing a certification path for VTOL-capable aircraft (VCA) in September 2024, then updated in 2025. This lays out performance-based airworthiness criteria and a certification pathway (DOA/POA under CAR-21) for Indian applicants. These are necessary precursors to any eVTOL type certification in India. India has moved from UTM policy (2021) to a 2024 VTOL certification advisory, a necessary step before operational approvals and vertiport standards (Ministry of Civil Aviation, 2025). Furthermore, its industrial policy complements rulemaking: the PLI scheme for drones targets domestic capacity building (Ministry of Civil Aviation, 2022). India has moved from UTM policy to a published VCA type-certification basis and has drafted vertiport guidance but lacks codified powered-lift operations/training.

China

China diverged by moving fast to commercial approvals. The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) granted EHang EH216-S the world’s first type certificate in Oct 2023, followed by a standard airworthiness certificate in Dec 2023, production certificate by Apr 2024, and the first eVTOL air operator certificate for pilotless passenger flights in Mar 2025 (eHang 4, 2023). Since 2020, CAAC has moved A AM from experimentation to bounded commercial use by assembling a full regulatory stack for an autonomous passenger eVTOL. Their National industrial policy widened the aperture in March 2024 when four ministries including CAAC issued the Implementation Plan for Innovative Application of General Aviation Equipment (2024–2030) (吕俐缘, 2024). CAAC exhibits the world’s most complete approval chain for an autonomous passenger eVTOL and is translating China’s “low-altitude economy” push into concrete certification and initial commercial authorisations.

South Korea

Korea progressed with the K-UAM Grand Challenge and policy updates under the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, signaling state-backed trials and commercialization preparations (MOLIT, 2021). The policy is anchored in the Act on the Promotion of and Support for Utilization of Urban Air Mobility that was enacted on 6 October 2023. This ministerial UAM Committee empowers:

• designation of demonstration zones and trial corridors,
• enables regulatory fast-tracks,
• provides financial/administrative support, and
• authorises vertiport development by the state or private actors.

Furthermore, Korea has also executed integrated demonstrations that connect vehicles to airline/airport operations and telecom networks. It is also pursuing a 5G-based low-altitude airspace network for initial operations signalling a system view beyond vehicle certification (Bielby, 2025). In 2025, MOLIT began revising its national ConOps to broaden near-term commercialization models (public services, non-urban tourism) and staged entry into dense urban areas (Bielby, 2025).

U.S.A

Since 2020, the U.S. has transitioned from concept papers to enforceable rules and aircraft-specific certification bases. The FAA’s Innovate28 plan (July 2023) established a roadmap for initial integrated AAM operations at one or more locations by 2028. Subsequent FAA portfolio briefs also embed Innovate28 as the coordinating mechanism for near-term entry-into-service (FAA, 2023a). Aircraft certification has progressed from proposals to airworthiness criteria for leading piloted eVTOLs such as Joby JAS4-1 and Archer M001 (FAA, 2024a; US Deptt of Transportation, 2024). Regarding operations and training, the FAA issued the final rule “Integration of Powered-Lift: Pilot Certification and Operations” (FAA, 2024b), along with a technical correction on January 3, 2025. FAA Advisory Circular AC 194-2 (FAA, 2024b) offers the associated guidance for pilot training and qualification.

This forms the regulatory foundation for upcoming powered-lift commercial operations. Regarding ground infrastructure, the FAA initially provided vertiport design guidance through Engineering Brief 105. This was subsequently updated as EB 105A (Robert Bassey, 2024) to complement heliport AC 150/5390-2D, allowing industry standards to evolve alongside it. The U.S. now combines dated operational planning (Innovate28), aircraft-specific certification bases, a final powered-lift operations/training rule, and interim vertiport guidance.

Japan

Japan has built a policy-first, ecosystem approach anchored by the Public-Private Council for the Air Mobility Revolution co-led by MLIT and METI (MLIT, 2023). It has also issued Vertiport Design Guidelines (Dec 2023), providing interim national guidance. Japan is also publishing clarifications on metropolitan versus regional vertiport patterns as the network scales (JCAB, 2023). JCAB has accepted concurrent and harmonized certification work with foreign NAAs like Volocopter with EASA (Sampson, 2023) and, in Feb 2025, issued a G-1 certification basis to SkyDrive for its three-seat SD-05. This establishes the agreed basis for type certification activities in Japan (Charles Alcock, 2025).

Strategically, Japan has articulated a four-phase social implementation plan (August 2025 Council meeting), moving from tourism/airport-adjacent routes toward everyday transport after cost and scale improvements (Philip Hayes, 2025). Parallel workstreams in airworthiness, flight operations, and personnel licensing have been advancing since late-2023 to support the 2025 Expo-linked operations and beyond. Japan’s strengths lie in regulatory clarity, infrastructure guidance, and metropolitan planning linked to the Osaka Expo (2025) timeline; full type certificates and large-scale vertiport deployment remain the gating items to transition from demonstrations to durable services.

Furthermore, to facilitate a comparative analysis of progress, each country was assessed using a 0–5 readiness scale across the five sequential layers of the AAM/UAM framework.

Layer 1: Certify aircraft

• Score 5 meant a regulator has issued a Type Certificate (TC), Production Certificate (PC), and airworthiness certificate for an eVTOL aircraft.
• Score 4 meant binding airworthiness criteria or a confirmed certification basis.
• Score 3 meant advisory material or draft guidance is in place.
• Lower scores indicate intent statements or MoUs without regulatory authority.

Layer 2: Authorize operators & people

• Score 5 required published, binding pilot training/licensing and operations rules, and evidence of issued operator certificates.
• Score 4–4.5 captured regulators with final rules but not yet widespread operator authorizations.
• Score 3 indicate partial instruments.
• Score 2–2.5 meant advisory circulars or draft material.

Layer 3: Airspace services

• Score 4–5 signified live frameworks with legal force and technical implementation.
• Score 3–3.5 was given where frameworks exist but are not yet fully operational.
• Lower scores mean conceptual plans without published architecture.

Layer 4: Vertiports & energy systems

• Score 4–5 applied where binding national standards or mature prototypes are published.
• Score 3–3.8 reflected interim advisories or draft standards.
• Score 2–2.8 indicated reported but not officially codified guidance.
• Score 1 would imply no national references.

Layer 5: Implementation

• Score 5 represented bounded commercial operations already authorised.
• Score 4 captured large-scale government-backed demonstration campaigns with published timelines.
• Score 2–3 was assigned to countries with limited or only planned corridors.

China demonstrates the fastest practical deployment due to its comprehensive certification achievements. Its model is execution-driven and focuses on specific use cases, such as tourism and airport shuttles. The U.S. exhibits the strongest rule-of-law framework for piloted eVTOLs, complemented by interim vertiport guidance. While initially slower than China, this model is durably legitimized and supported by strong OEM industrial capabilities. Japan and Korea are “methodical accelerators,” leveraging robust governance frameworks (ConOps, legislation) alongside sustained demonstration programs. India’s foundational framework is evident through its UTM policy and VTOL certification advisory. However, codified powered-lift operations/licensing and a published national vertiport advisory circular are still pending. While the substation is wired, essential feeders like operational rules, vertiports, and demonstration corridors remain to be established. Without these, the grid remains unpowered, leaving India as a potential-rich but early-stage ecosystem.

The need for Vertiports and Charging Networks in India

Vertiports are dedicated infrastructure hubs for eVTOL operations, acting as takeoff, landing, charging, maintenance, and passenger handling stations. The proliferation of vertiports and landing pads is identified as a prerequisite for widespread AAM adoption. These facilities shall enable city taxi, airport shuttle and intercity use cases by providing safe, accessible locations for takeoff, landing and passenger transfer (MANFRED HADER et al., 2020). Vertiports should be highly accessible and well-integrated with existing transportation networks of an area. This will enable seamless multimodal integration of advanced air mobility services and transport planning processes (Di Mascio et al., 2025). India currently lacks a robust network of vertiports, electric charging or refueling stations and maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) facilities dedicated to AAM operations. India currently has very few functional civil heliports, but most are either limited to VVIP use or not DGCA-certified for commercial AAM -style services. Most metro areas lack designated zones for aerial mobility. Furthermore, EV charging stations are prioritized for road vehicles; eVTOL support infrastructure is absent. Therefore, existing infrastructure is insufficient for the scale and frequency required for eVTOL and drone-based mobility (Pwc & CII, 2023). Whereas China’s rapid adoption of an extensive electric bus network, supported by strong policy initiatives served as a catalyst for private players to confidently establish production setups and advance research efforts. By 2022, this strategic PPP approach resulted in the creation of the world’s most expansive charging infrastructure, consisting of 1.8 million public charging stations and 3.4 million private charging stations (EY, 2024).

To be a near-term enabler of AAM, India must publish the missing rules such as powered-lift operations and licensing rule, institute vertiports and charging as a regulated utility layer, and run KPI-metered corridors that demonstrate social returns. The opportunity lies in Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) to convert underused heliports into certified, modular vertiports and utilizing Green Urban Mobility funds to integrate high-voltage DC charging at these vertiports. Infrastructure development, such as the expansion of charging stations for urban air mobility (AAM) directly stimulates demand for green mobility solutions.

References

• Bielby, K. (2025, August 30). Republic of Korea revises UAM ConOps to revive “stagnant” market . https://www.urbanairmobilitynews.com/uam-infrastructure/republic-of-korea-revises-uam-conops-to-revive-stagnant-market/
• Charles Alcock. (2025, February 10). Japanese Regulator Confirms Certification Basis for SkyDrive eVTOL Aircraft | AIN . Aviation International News. https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/futureflight/2025-02-11/japanese-regulator-confirms-certification-basis-skydrive
• ÇInar, E., & Tuncal, A. (2023). A Comprehensive Analysis of Society’s Perspective on Urban Air Mobility. Journal of Aviation , 7 (3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.30518/jav.1324997
• Di Mascio, P., Del Serrone, G., & Moretti, L. (2025). Vertiports: The Infrastructure Backbone of Advanced Air Mobility—A Review. Eng , 6 (5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050093
• eHang4. (2023, December 21). EHang | EH216-S Passenger-Carrying UAV System Obtains Standard Airworthiness Certificate from CAAC and the Certified Aircraft Delivered to Customer in Guangzhou . https://www.ehang.com/news/1021.html
• EY. (2024). Building India’s future: Opportunities in green mobility and logistics . Ernst Young LLP.
• FAA. (2023a). Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) Implementation Plan .
• FAA. (2023b, June 4). Concept of Operations . https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/Urban-Air-Mobility-Concept-of-Operations-2.0.pdf
• FAA. (2024a, March 8). Airworthiness Criteria: Special Class Airworthiness Criteria for the Joby Aero, Inc. Model JAS4-1 Powered-Lift . Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/03/08/2024-04690/airworthiness-criteria-special-class-airworthiness-criteria-for-the-joby-aero-inc-model-jas4-1
• FAA. (2024b, November 21). AC 194-2—Pilot Training and Certification for Powered-Lift Operations [Template]. https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1042955
• JCAB. (2023, December). Vertiport Design Guidelines . Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
• Lee, Y., Lee, J., & Lee, J.-W. (2021). Holding Area Conceptual Design and Validation for Various Urban Air Mobility (UAM) Operations: A Case Study in Seoul–GyungIn Area. Applied Sciences , 11 (22), 10707. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210707
• MANFRED HADER, STEPHAN BAUR, SVEN KOPERA, TOBIAS SCHÖNBERG, & JAN-PHILIPP HASENBERG. (2020). Urban Air Mobility . Roland Berger GMBH. https://www.rolandberger.com/publications/publication_pdf/roland_berger_urban_air_mobility_1.pdf
• Ministry of Civil Aviation. (2022, November 29). Operational Guidelines of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for drones and drone components . Government of India. https://www.civilaviation.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-04/Guidelines_for%20_PLI_page-3.pdf
• Ministry of Civil Aviation. (2025, July 29). ADVANCED AIR MOBILITY IN INDIA: CURRENT POSITION AND DEVELOPMENTS . International Civil Aviation Organization. https://www.icao.int/sites/default/files/Meetings/a42/Documents/WP/wp_166_en.pdf
• Ministry of Rural Development. (2022). PMGSY progress report . Government of India.
• MLIT. (2023, March 31). Concept of Operations for Advanced Air Mobility . Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. https://www.mlit.go.jp/koku/content/001739467.pdf
• MOLIT. (2021, December 28). Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport . Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. https://www.molit.go.kr/english/USR/BORD0201/m_28286/DTL.jsp?id=eng0301&cate=&mode=view&idx=3002&key=&search=&search_regdate_s=&search_regdate_e=&order=&desc=asc&srch_prc_stts=&item_num=0&search_dept_id=&search_dept_nm=&srch_usr_nm=N&srch_usr_titl=N&srch_usr_ctnt=N&srch_mng_nm=N&old_dept_nm=&search_gbn=&search_section=&source=&search1=&lcmspage=11
• NASA. (n.d.). Urban Air Mobility . NASA Ames Aeromechanics Office. Retrieved June 6, 2025, from https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Research/Programs/UrbanAirMobility.html
• Philip, & Bielby, K. (2025, August 22). Republic of Korea unveils 5G airspace network plans for UAM. Unmanned Airspace . https://www.unmannedairspace.info/urban-air-mobility/republic-of-korea-unveils-5g-airspace-network-plans-for-uam/
• Philip Hayes. (2025, September 1). Japan sets out four-phase vision for full implementation of flying cars and eVTOLs. Unmanned Airspace . https://www.unmannedairspace.info/latest-news-and-information/japan-sets-out-four-phase-vision-for-full-implementation-of-flying-cars-and-evtols/
• Pradhan, R. P., & Bagchi, T. P. (2013). Effect of transportation infrastructure on economic growth in India: The VECM approach. Research in Transportation Economics , 38 (1), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2012.05.008
• Purnamasari, R., & Runturambi, A. J. S. (2024). Analysis of Odd-Even Policies in Overcoming Congestion and Air Pollution, Studies in Jakarta and Beijing. Asian Journal of Engineering, Social and Health , 3 (5), 949–965. https://doi.org/10.46799/ajesh.v3i5.311
• Pwc & CII. (2023). Advanced and short-haul air mobility . https://www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/industries/government-and-public-services/advanced-and-short-haul-air-mobility.pdf
• Robert Bassey. (2024, December 27). Vertiport Design, Supplemental Guidance to Advisory Circular 150/5390-2D, Heliport Design . Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/engineering_briefs/eb_105a_vertiports
• Sampson, B. (2023, February 22). Volocopter sets out certification plan for Japan. Aerospace Testing International . https://www.aerospacetestinginternational.com/news/drones-air-taxis/volocopter-sets-out-certification-plan-for-japan.html
• Straubinger, A., Rothfeld, R., Shamiyeh, M., Büchter, K.-D., Kaiser, J., & Plötner, K. O. (2020). An overview of current research and developments in urban air mobility – Setting the scene for UAM introduction. Journal of Air Transport Management , 87 , 101852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101852
• US Deptt of Transportation. (2024, March 8). Airworthiness Criteria: Special Class Airworthiness Criteria for the Joby Aero, Inc. Model JAS4-1 Powered-Lift | US Department of Transportation . https://www.transportation.gov/regulations/federal-register-documents/2024-04690
• Wiedemann, M., Liang, M., Keremane, G., & Quigley, K. (2024). Advanced Air Mobility: A comparative review of policies from around the world—lessons for Australia. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives , 24 , 100988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100988
• Xiang, S., Xie, A., Ye, M., Yan, X., Han, X., Niu, H., Li, Q., & Huang, H. (2024). Autonomous eVTOL: A summary of researches and challenges. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation , 3 (1), 100140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geits.2023.100140
• 吕俐缘. (2024, March 27). Notice of Four Departments on the Issuance of the “Implementation Plan for the Innovation and Application of General Aviation Equipment (2024-2030).” https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/202403/content_6942115.htm