8-step procedure to conduct qualitative content analysis in a research

A study by Ary et al. (1996) categorized qualitative research or methods into two distinct forms. Firstly participant observation, where the researcher is a participant in the study. Secondly, non-participant observation, where the researcher observes but does not participate. It is in this non-participant observation that one can use the content analysis approach.

“A research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns”.

Hsieh & Shannon (2005; p.1278)

The content analysis unlike statistical analysis does not measure or quantify patterns. It is based on interpreting opinions and perspectives of various subjects. Content analysis takes into following elements when analyzing issues:

Steps of content analysis

Content analysis in qualitative research is carried out by recording the communication between the researcher and its subjects. One can use different modes such as transcripts of interviews/discourses, protocols of observation, video tapes and written documents for communication. Its strength lies in its stringent methodological control and step-by-step analysis of the material. In other words, every element in the data collected is categorized into themes which are identified through secondary literature. The method of the analysis comprises the following 8 steps:

1. Preparation of data: As discussed previously, there are several ways by which one can collect the data for qualitative content analysis. However one needs to transform the data before the analysis can start. From the data set that the researcher has collected, the choice of “content” needs to be clearly defined and justified. Before initiation of data preparation, the researcher needs to know the answers to the following questions:
   • All the data collected be transcribed or not?
   • Should verbalizations be transcribed literally?
   • Should observations be transcribed as well?

2. Defining the unit or theme of analysis: A unit or theme of analysis means classifying the content into themes which can be a word, phrase or sentence. When deciding the unit of analysis, one theme should present an “idea”. This means the data related to the theme has to be added under that unit. Furthermore, units or themes should be based on the objectives of the study.
3. Developing categories and coding schemes: The next step is to develop sub-categories and coding schemes for the analysis. This is derived from three sources, the primary data, theories on similar topics and empirical studies. Since the qualitative content analysis can be based on both inductive and deductive approaches, the categories and codes need to be developed based on the approach adopted. In the case of the deductive approach, it is important to link the interpretations with the existing theories to draw inferences. However, in the case of the inductive approach, the objective is to develop new theories. So, it is important to evaluate secondary sources to stimulate original ideas. To ensure consistency in the codes, the categories as per their properties with examples have to be defined.
4. Pre-testing the coding scheme on the sample: Like quantitative data, pre-testing qualitative data is also important. In order to ensure consistency, members of the research team need to code the sample of existing data. If the level of consistency is low across researchers then re-coding has to be done again.
5. Coding all the text: After the coding consistency in the previous stage, it is important to apply the coding process to the data.
6. Assessing the consistency of coding employed: After coding the whole data set validity and reliability should be checked.
7. Drawing inferences on the basis of coding or themes: In this step, one has to draw inferences on the basis of codes and categories generated. It is important to explore the properties, dimensions and identify the relationship and uncover patterns in order to present the analysis.
8. Presentation of results: To present the results under each theme with conclusions the results should be supported by secondary data and quotes from the developed code. Further, based on the analysis, the researcher can also present the results in the form of graphs, matrices, or conceptual frameworks. The results should be presented in such a way that the reader is able to understand the basis of interpretations.

Computer-assisted qualitative content analysis

In conclusion, qualitative data, like quantitative data can be huge. In such cases, assistance from computer programs is required in order to reduce the complexity of analysis. Among various tools, the most common are NVivo or Atlas. These tools have several features, which help in coding and development of the nodes. This also enables the visual presentation of interpretations drawn from the content.

References

• Berg, B.L. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
• Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. Library Quarterly, 63(4), 431-449.
• Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine.
• Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S.E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288. Available on : http://qhr.sagepub.com/content/15/9/1277.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc
• Miles, M., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Weber, R.P. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.